Teacher Notes on Instruction-Writing Exercises

Exercise 0: Guidelines used in the other exercises

Context for this case: Other versions: Plain, printable for students. Comparable guidelines for writing descriptions. Introduce these guidelines by "touring" them with DNA-extraction instructions.

Guidelines for Writing Good Instructions Organization Are the steps presented in the order in which they are performed? Is the first step really the first task that someone in the audience needs to do? Should a long or complex step be broken into smaller parts? Are all hidden steps made explicit? Clarity Is each step written as an overt command (beginning with an action verb)? Are all steps easy to find and visually distinct? List format? Bullets or numbers needed? Is each step precise and complete enough to be followed? Includes needed details? Excludes irrelevant text? Are common problems covered? Safety/danger warnings? Troubleshooting tips?

Three Roles for These Guidelines

1. Audience analysis.
   The guidelines introduce the importance of writing for and helping an audience that depends on what you say. This concept will be new to many students, who expect to write only for the teacher. Reviewing the guidelines points out that technical texts (and especially instructions) have real readers, that the readers need the writer's help to do something, and that just what the writer says can make a big difference in how helpful the instructions are.
2. Reading Critically.
   The guidelines help students learn to read critically by focusing their attention on the specific features "at work" in real-life instructions. Instructions are seldom drafted optimally the first time, so reading instructions critically (other people's and one's own as well) is crucial for good editing and self-editing. The guidelines are a slightly formulaic but psychologically well grounded look inside instructions to see what makes them helpful or unhelpful for the readers that depend on them.
3. Repair Techniques.
   The guidelines provide students with an overt, shared repertoire of techniques for repairing the flaws that they find in instructions. The guidelines offer goals to strive for in good instructions, and ways to improve every weak step found. Finally, the guidelines are a kind of loaned experience: they make explicit for beginners what working professional writers know implicitly through long practice.

Giving a Guideline Tour

An easy, focused way to introduce each of these guidelines to students is to "tour" through them using some authentic laboratory instructions to illustrate how they work. For example, Regina Bailey's 13-step process for extracting DNA from human cheek cells, posted at
http://biiology.about.com/c/ht/00/07/How_Extract_DNA_Human0962932481.htm
does this job nicely. Many alternatives exist, but Bailey's instructions are realistic yet simple enough to be workable in one period with only ordinary supplies. They provide great guideline cases:

• Every Bailey step really is a command, with the verb first to make clear what action to take next.
• The separate steps are clearly marked, even sequentially numbered.
• The steps include relevant detail needed to perform them, without irrelevant distraction.

• Some steps (6 and 8) are really complex (they involve two separate tasks each of which could be its own step).
• One step (3) is apparently not needed (its results are never used later, so it could be omitted without harm).
• A missing step ("chill the alcohol," inserted between 8 and 9) needs to be added for practical success (most DNA-extraction instructions call for chilled alcohol).

I always introduce instruction-writing guidelines before, not after, the exercises to which they apply. And I suggest explicitly invoking them in every subsequent lesson. They tie the separate exercises together: an easy way to review at the start of each lesson, an overt focus for practice, and a shared evaluation standard. I have even hung the guidelines in the classroom as a 3-by-4-foot poster to provide visual continuity and a tangible resource for student writers.

Comparison with Sue Mehlich

Many items in the guidelines here overlap with those that Sue Mehlich includes in her Technical Communication: Writing Instructions (Perfection Learning, 1997, 32 pp.), a short high-school technical writing text. Mehlich's most relevant passages are the brief "Guidelines for Writing Instructions" (p. 19, two thirds through the text) and "Planning Strategies for Revising Instructions" (p. 25, almost at the end of her text). Her guidelines also include general writing issues (e.g., grammar) and even graphics issues that fall outside the scope of instruction writing itself. I aim not for an all-purpose composing checklist, but rather for a way to overtly share specific techniques with students for whom those techniques are likely to be unfamiliar (or confusing if left implicit).

Guideline Commentary by Patricia Wright

Exercise 1: How to cook new potatoes

TEACHING TIPS:
The STUDENT and ANNOTATED versions of Exercise 1 are the same. The overt scaffolding along the right side of the recipe focuses student attention on how each step exemplifies one (or more) of the instruction-writing guidelines. Every step here represents a careful choice by the writer of this recipe. Several alternative choices are available for each step, and most of them would be less appropriate, less helpful to the reader. Exercise 1, simple as it is, lets students see that writing instructions is not magic or guesswork, but a careful design process in which they must (repeatedly, at each step) choose among several rhetorical alternatives to build the most helpful series of steps that they can.

When I teach this exercise I bring along a new potato to illustrate this "technical term." I point out that with an overt action verb beginning each step, confirming that there are no complex steps to subdivide is easy. And I note that "until they are done" (step 4) could be improved into "until they are soft" to reveal how to detect doneness empirically.

DRIVING-DIRECTIONS ALTERNATIVE:
If you want to preface this recipe analysis with another, even more basic (but still authentic) case, try end-to-end driving directions from Mapquest. Itemized, icon-marked, step-by-step instructions for driving (from your home to school, perhaps) are easy to read (an ideal starter for special education or ESL students) and "naturally" scaffolded, yet they offer a real-life case where usable instructions are crucial for success. Projected or copied large, they provide another colorful, practical, introductory model for applying the good-instruction guidelines.

Case:

Student and Annotated version:

Example of GOOD instructions that apply the guidelines.

(1) How to cook new potatoes
                                         Effective features:

                                         VISUALLY DISTINCT LIST
1. Boil:
   enough water to cover potatoes        OVERT COMMANDS, ACTION VERBS

2. Wash well:
   12 new potatoes                       ORDER CORRECT

3. Drop them into:
   boiling water to cover                NO COMPLEX STEPS

4. Cook:
   covered,                              NEEDED DETAILS INCLUDED
   until they are done,
   about 20-30 minutes                   IRRELEVANT DETAILS EXCLUDED

5. Serve:
   with parsley

Note:

This exercise most closely supports the following 1998 California English-Language Arts content standard(s).
Reading:
Grade 5--"Understand how text features make information accessible and usable" (p. 28).
Grade 6--"Follow multi-step instructions" (p. 36).
Writing:
Grade 8--"Write technical documents...identify the sequence of activities needed to design a system, operate a tool..." (p. 51).

Exercise 2: How to make chili mac

REAL-LIFE REVISIONS:
In the science world beyond school, most of what scientists and engineers write gets revised, often repeatedly and sometimes extensively, before others rely on it. Students, however, tend to defer written assignments until the last minute, leaving little time or inclination to iteratively improve their first draft.

Some students don't revise because they really don't understand how to do it well. This exercise (and the others like it that follow) addresses that problem by externalizing text revision: the guidelines serve as a checklist of possible flaws to look for, and the scaffolding focuses the search for those flaws in each recipe. Effective revision stops being magic when you have a checklist of specific improvements and practice in trying them.

Some students, however, are able to revise their drafts but just don't bother, or they regard revision as a childish, school-only exercise. A look at authentic laboratory practice might motivate these students to make active self-revision a habit. Kalpana Shankar has published (August, 2007) a revealing ethnographic study of writing in an biology laboratory (Order From Chaos: The Poetics and Pragmatics of Scientific Recordkeeping. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 58(10):1457-1466, 2007). Researchers there kept a stack of yellow pads handy to "scrawl down where it's all going" as they worked, and a separate set of bound permanent blue record books. Explained one biologist to Shankar

...especially during an experiment [what I write] is extremely messy and difficult to read and if I went back to it myself many days later I'de probably have difficulty interpreting it. So I very shortly write it up into my main laboratory books...it's much clearer after that (p. 1461).

Hence, among these real-life scientists, careful scheduled text revision is in play even from the start to make usable research records emerge from bench-science activity.

Case:

Student version:

(2) How to make chili mac
                                         Problems/solutions:
1. Brown 1 lb. of ground beef
   -----
     |-----------------------------------PROBLEM:
                                         SOLUTION:

2. You can now add 1 16-oz. can----------PROBLEM:
   of tomatoes and 1 tsp. of             SOLUTION:
   chili powder

3. Add 4 oz. of cooked macaroni
                ------
                   |---------------------PROBLEM:
                                         SOLUTION:

4. Simmer for 15 minutes,
   stirring occasionally.

Annotated version:

1. Brown 1 lb. of ground beef
   -----
     |-----------------------------------PROBLEM: COMPLEX STEP
                                         SOLUTION:
                                         for new cooks, "brown" will need
                                         to be DIVIDED into SUBSTEPS
                                         (unwrap the meat,
                                         crumble into skillet,
                                         cook on high heat,
                                         stir until red disappears)

2. You can now add 1 16-oz. can----------PROBLEM: NO OVERT COMMAND
   of tomatoes and 1 tsp. of             SOLUTION: Add the following...
   chili powder                                     1 16-oz. can of tomatoes
                                                    1 tsp. chili powder

3. Add 4 oz. of cooked macaroni
                ------
                   |---------------------PROBLEM: cooked = HIDDEN STEP
                                         PROBLEM: WRONG FIRST TASK
                                         SOLUTION:
                                         FIRST step should be
                                         "cook 4 oz. of macaroni"
                                         (possible SUBSTEPS are:
                                          boil water,
                                          add 1 teaspoon of oil,
                                          add raw macaroni,
                                          boil until tender, 7 min.)

4. Simmer for 15 minutes,
   stirring occasionally.

Note:

This exercise most closely supports the following 1998 California English-Language Arts content standard(s).
Reading:
Grade 7--"Understand and explain the use of a simple mechanical device..." (p. 43).
Writing:
Grade 8--"Write technical documents...identify the sequence of activities needed to design a system, operate a tool..." (p. 51).

Exercise 3: How to boil water in a microwave oven

STUDENT VERSION:
Like Exercise 1 and 2, Exercise 3 is a worked example, so that even the preliminary version signals students about the importance of the last item in the guidelines.
ANNOTATED VERSION:
This is almost the same as the student version, but just shows how to integrate the warnings with the rest of the instruction text. Proper placement of warnings can be crucial, since readers must see them in time to help avoid trouble, not after mistakes have been made.

Case:

Student version:

Example of good instructions with SAFETY WARNINGS.

(3) How to boil water in a microwave oven.

1. Fill
   a nonmetalic cup or bowl
   with warm water.

2. Insert
   a nonmetalic spoon or stir stick
   diagonally into the cup.
                                         PROBLEM: SAFETY HAZARD
                                         SOLUTION:
                                         WARNING--without this, the
                                         water may appear not to boil,
                                         then vaporize suddenly and
                                         severely burn your face
                                         when you check it.

3. Set
   the microwave oven to
   3 minutes on HIGH

4. Place
   the cup of water into the oven
   and close the door.

5. Start
   the oven.
                                         PROBLEM: SAFETY HAZARD
                                         SOLUTION:
                                         WARNING--never put your
                                         face close to the cup to
                                         check if the water is
                                         boiling.

Annotated version:

Example of good instructions with SAFETY WARNINGS.

(3) How to boil water in a microwave oven.

1. Fill
   a nonmetalic cup or bowl
   with warm water.

2. Insert
   a nonmetalic spoon or stir stick
   diagonally into the cup.
    WARNING--without this, the
    water may appear not to boil,
    then vaporize suddenly and
    severely burn your face
    when you check it.

3. Set
   the microwave oven to
   3 minutes on HIGH

4. Place
   the cup of water into the oven
   and close the door.

5. Start
   the oven.
    WARNING--never put your
    face close to the cup to
    check if the water is
    boiling.

Note:

This exercise most closely supports the following 1998 California English-Language Arts content standard(s).
Reading:
Grade 5--"Understand how text features make information accessible and usable" (p. 28).
Writing:
Grade 6--"Compose documents with appropriate formatting by using word-processing skills and principles of design" (p. 37).
Grade 9/10--"Make distinctions between the relative value and significance of specific data, facts, and ideas" (p. 60).

Exercise 4: How to make cranberry sauce

SECOND STAGE:
Version 4B again has the location of (new) problems cued, but without answers worked out. Every problem passage here violates the guideline that "each step [is] precise and complete enough to be followed." Needed details were edited out of 4A along with the extra words, leaving 4B concise but too incomplete to help (or even allow) readers to carry out its (now overt) steps. Specifically missing are (one for each cued problem):
(1) Amount. "Some water, enough sugar" should each specify 2 cups.
(2) Time. "Boil for a while" should specify 5 minutes.
(3) Conversion. Cranberries are used by volume (4 cups) but sold by weight. To prepare for this step when shopping, the reader needs to know how to convert cups to pounds (4 cups = 1 pound), a crucial detail. In cooking, as in science, units matter. Sharing a cranberry bag (which now contains only 12, not 16 ounces) reinforces this point.
(4) Manner. Again, we need to restore the "uncovered, very gently, without stirring" method details that are an important, not irrelevant, part of this recipe's step 4.

STUDENT VERSIONS:
Unlike Exercises 1, 2, and 3, both student version 4A and 4B are unworked examples. Both have problem locations highlighted by scaffolding. Version 4B incorporates the solutions to 4A's three problems in its own text and exposes four fresh problems in turn. I suggest using the word count exercise as a revealing transition from 4A to 4B.
ANNOTATED VERSION:
This version shows the solutions for both the 4A and the 4B problems integrated into the same instruction text (without scaffolding). This is the goal toward which student editing of 4a and 4B leads. (A second word count reveals that the final version has about 52 words, up from too-short version 4B but still less than 60% as large as 4A.)

Case:

Student version 4A:

(4A) How to make cranberry sauce (first version)

You can make a very nice
whole cranberry sauce by
placing 2 cups of water in
a saucepan and then stirring
into the water 2 cups of
sugar until the sugar itself
dissolves.  Next boil the----------------PROBLEM:  [not an overt list]
the water-sugar mixture for              SOLUTION:
5 minutes.  Taking about
4 cups of whole, raw cranberries---------PROBLEM:  [not a command]
(which is about the same as              SOLUTION:
1 pound by weight) and
washing them lets you add
them to the boiled solution.
If you simmer them-----------------------PROBLEM:  [many extra words]
(uncovered, very gently,                 SOLUTION:
without stirring) until
thick, about 5 minutes,
you will have cranberry
sauce.

Student version 4B:

(4B) How to make cranberry sauce (second version)

Place
    in a saucepan and
    stir until dissolved:
    some water---------------------------PROBLEM:  [how much?]
    enough sugar-------------------------SOLUTION:

Boil
    for a while--------------------------PROBLEM:  [how long?]
                                         SOLUTION:

Wash
    and add to the sugar water
    4 cups of raw cranberries------------PROBLEM:  [how to convert?]
                                         SOLUTION:
Simmer
    until the sauce is thick,------------PROBLEM:  [what manner?]
    about 5 minutes                      SOLUTION:

Annotated version:

(4) How to make cranberry sauce (combined version)

Place
    in a saucepan and
    stir until dissolved:
    2 cups of water
    2 cups of sugar

Boil
    for 5 minutes

Wash
    and add to the sugar water
    4 cups of raw cranberries
    (about the same as 1 pound)

Simmer
    uncovered, very gently,
    without stirring,
    until the sauce is thick,
    about 5 minutes

Note:

This exercise most closely supports the following 1998 California English-Language Arts content standard(s).
Reading:
Grade 5--"Understand how text features make information accessible and usable" (p. 28).
Writing:
Grade 8--"Write technical documents...identify the sequence of activities needed to design a system, operate a tool..." (p. 51).
Grade 9/10--"Make distinctions between the relative value and significance of specific data, facts, and ideas" (p. 60).

Exercise 5: How to make pancakes

STUDENT VERSION:
Like Exercise 4 (and most of the remaining exercises), this is an unworked example with scaffolding.
ANNOTATED VERSIONS:
The first annotated version (below) spells out each problem and its solution without implementing those solutions. This could be a helpful intermediate stage for hesitant students. The second annotated version implements the solutions. It is not the only way to improve the original, but it illustrates one plausible way to put all of the solutions in play at once.

Case:

Student version:

(5) How to make pancakes

The secret to good pancakes--------------PROBLEM:
is to turn them only once.               SOLUTION:
Pancakes can be made from
four ingredients (1 cup of---------------PROBLEM:
baking mix, 3/4 cup of water,            SOLUTION:
1 egg, and 1 tablespoon of
oil).  You will need to combine----------PROBLEM:
the dry and wet ingredients              SOLUTION:
to start.  Then mix them all
until just moistened
(overmixing is not good)-----------------PROBLEM:
In order to cook the                     SOLUTION:
pancake batter, try
spooning it onto a hot
skillet.  The first
side should be heated until--------------PROBLEM:
bubbles form and just                    SOLUTION:
begin to burst (2-3
minutes).  The second side
cooks for about half as
long as the first side.

Annotated version (1):

(5) How to make pancakes

The secret to good pancakes--------------PROBLEM: WRONG ORDER
is to turn them only once.               SOLUTION: Move this step later
Pancakes can be made from
four ingredients (1 cup of---------------PROBLEM: STEPS NOT EASY TO FIND
baking mix, 3/4 cup of water,            SOLUTION: Use list format
1 egg, and 1 tablespoon of
oil).  You will need to combine----------PROBLEM: IRRELEVANT TEXT,
the dry and wet ingredients                       TWO STEPS TOGETHER
to start.  Then mix them all             SOLUTION: Trim unneeded words,
until just moistened                               subdivide the steps
(overmixing is not good)-----------------PROBLEM: TROUBLESHOOTING TIP
In order to cook the                     SOLUTION: Make overt warning
pancake batter, try
spooning it onto a hot
skillet.  The first
side should be heated until--------------PROBLEM: NOT OVERT COMMAND
bubbles form and just                    SOLUTION: Use action-verb format
begin to burst (2-3
minutes).  The second side
cooks for about half as
long as the first side.

Annotated version (2):

(5) How to make pancakes

Place in a bowl:
     1 cup of baking mix

Add:
     3/4 cup of water
     1 egg
     1 tablespoon of oil

Mix
     until just moistened
     WARNING--do not stir
     aggressively.

Spoon
     the mixture onto a
     hot skillet

Bake one side
     until bubbles form
     and just burst
     (2-3 minutes)

Turn
     each pancake only once

Finish
     baking the other side
     (about half as long
     as the first side)

Note:

This exercise most closely supports the following 1998 California English-Language Arts content standard(s).
Reading:
Grade 9/10--"Analyze the structure and format of functional workplace documents...and explain how authors use the features to achieve their purposes" (p. 56).
Grade 9/10--"Critique the logic of functional documents by examining the sequence of information...in anticipation of possible reader misunderstandings" (p. 57).
Writing:
Grade 8--"Write technical documents...identify the sequence of activities needed to design a system, operate a tool..." (p. 51).
Grade 5--"Edit and revise manuscripts to improve the meaning and focus" (p. 30).

Exercise 6: Stuffed baked acorn squash

Case:

Student version:

(6) Stuffed baked acorn squash

1. Cut into small pieces
   1 apple, with skin
   1 orange, without skin----------------PROBLEM:
                                         SOLUTION:

2. Mix
   fruit pieces in a bowl with
   1 tablespoon margarine

3. Cut
   an acorn squash in half---------------PROBLEM:
                                         SOLUTION:

4. Remove
   the soft, stringy insides
   and seeds from each half
   with a spoon

5. Into each clean half------------------PROBLEM:
   squash you can now start              SOLUTION:
   packing half of the
   fruit mixture.

6. Bake
   at 350 degrees for 1 hour

7. Before you put the squash-------------PROBLEM:
   into the oven, place the              SOLUTION:
   halves on a baking dish
   and add 1/2 cup of water.

Annotated version:

(6) Stuffed baked acorn squash

1. Cut into small pieces
   1 apple, with skin
   1 orange, without skin----------------PROBLEM: HIDDEN STEP
                                         SOLUTION: (FIRST step =
                                         "Peel 1 orange")

2. Mix
   fruit pieces in a bowl with
   1 tablespoon margarine

3. Cut
   an acorn squash in half---------------PROBLEM: NEEDED DETAIL MISSING
                                         SOLUTION: add
                                         "from tip to stem, lengthwise"


4. Remove
   the soft, stringy insides
   and seeds from each half
   with a spoon

5. Into each clean half------------------PROBLEM: NO OVERT COMMAND
   squash you can now start              SOLUTION: reword--
   packing half of the                   Pack
   fruit mixture.                         half of the fruit mixture
                                          into each clean half squash.
                                          (30% fewer words)

6. Bake
   at 350 degrees for 1 hour

7. Before you put the squash-------------PROBLEM: WRONG ORDER
   into the oven, place the              SOLUTION: make an overt command
   halves on a baking dish               and move BEFORE step 6
   and add 1/2 cup of water.             (could also be 2 steps)

Note:

This exercise most closely supports the following 1998 California English-Language Arts content standard(s).
Reading:
Grade 7--"Analyze text that uses the cause-and-effect organizational pattern" (p. 42).
Grade 9/10--"Critique the logic of functional documents by examining the sequence of information...in anticipation of possible reader misunderstandings" (p. 57).
Writing:
Grade 7--"Revise writing to improve organization and word choice after checking the logic of ideas..." (p. 44).
Grade 8--"Write technical documents...identify the sequence of activities needed to design a system, operate a tool..." (p. 51).

Exercise 7: Butterscotch brownies

Case:

Student version:

(7) Butterscotch brownies

Into a saucepan go-----------------------PROBLEM:
    1 cup of                             SOLUTION:
      brown sugar
    1/4 cup of
      melted butter----------------------PROBLEM:
                                         SOLUTION:

Remove from heat and---------------------PROBLEM:
stir in                                  SOLUTION:
    1 egg
    1 teaspoon vanilla

Combine in a mixing bowl
    some flour---------------------------PROBLEM:
    1 teaspoon baking powder             SOLUTION:
    1/2 teaspoon salt

After
    you stir the dry ingredients---------PROBLEM:
    into the butter/sugar mixture,       SOLUTION:
    then add 1 cup of chopped nuts.------PROBLEM:
                                         SOLUTION:

Pour
    into a 9-by-9-inch
    floured baking pan.------------------PROBLEM:
                                         SOLUTION:

Bake
    for 20-25 minutes in a
    350-degree preheated oven.-----------PROBLEM:
                                         SOLUTION:

Annotated version:

(7) Butterscotch brownies

Into a saucepan go-----------------------PROBLEM: NO OVERT COMMAND
    1 cup of                             SOLUTION:: (see next problem)
      brown sugar
    1/4 cup of
      melted butter----------------------PROBLEM: HIDDEN STEP GOES FIRST
                                         SOLUTION: combined solution--
                                         Melt in a saucepan
                                            1/4 cup butter
                                         Stir
                                            into the melted butter
                                            1 cup sugar

Remove from heat and---------------------PROBLEM: TWO STEPS COMBINED
stir in                                  SOLUTION:
    1 egg                                Remove from heat.
    1 teaspoon vanilla                   Stir in...

Combine in a mixing bowl
    some flour---------------------------PROBLEM: NEEDED DETAIL MISSING
    1 teaspoon baking powder             SOLUTION: specify
    1/2 teaspoon salt                    (1/2 cup flour)

After
    you stir the dry ingredients---------PROBLEM: NO OVERT COMMAND
    into the butter/sugar mixture,       SOLUTION: Stir in the dry...
    then add 1 cup of chopped nuts.------PROBLEM: TWO STEPS COMBINED
                                         SOLUTION: Add
                                                   1 cup of chopped nuts

Pour
    into a 9-by-9-inch
    floured baking pan.------------------PROBLEM: HIDDEN STEP
                                         SOLUTION: Grease and flour
                                                     a 9-by-9-inch pan.
                                                   Pour in the batter.

Bake
    for 20-25 minutes in a
    350-degree preheated oven.-----------PROBLEM: HIDDEN STEP
                                         PROBLEM: GOES FIRST
                                         SOLUTION: Make the first step
                                         "Preheat oven to 350 degrees"

Note:

This exercise most closely supports the following 1998 California English-Language Arts content standard(s).
Reading:
Grade 7--"Analyze text that uses the cause-and-effect organizational pattern" (p. 42).
Grade 9/10--"Critique the logic of functional documents by examining the sequence of information...in anticipation of possible reader misunderstandings" (p. 57).
Writing:
Grade 7--"Revise writing to improve organization and word choice after checking the logic of ideas..." (p. 44).
Grade 8--"Write technical documents...identify the sequence of activities needed to design a system, operate a tool..." (p. 51).

Exercise 8: What to do if you spill rubber cement

The STUDENT and ANNOTATED versions of Exercise 8 (like Exercise 1) are the same, intended to show well-designed text and art complementing each other to meet reader needs. These specific moves come from a much larger array of techniques known to make technical illustrations effective; for more examples (many related to map design), see Edward Tufte, Envisioning Information (Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press, 1990). (This exercise has been generously adapted for this project by artist Brett S. Clark from an idea on p. 109 of Bill Gray's influential Studio Tips, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1976.)

Case:

Student and Annotated version:

1. Keep a stack of small (3-by-5-inch) stiff cards near
   where you use rubber cement (Fig. 1).



2. WARNING: if rubber cement spills, act fast (Fig. 2).



3. Stand the container upright and off to the side.

4. Gather the spilled cement by using two of the cards,
   one in each hand, as shown (Fig. 3).



   a. If the cement spilled on a clean surface,
      scoop the cement back into the original
      container (repeat until it is all recovered, Fig. 4).



   b. If the cement spilled on a dirty area,
      scoop the cement on to a piece of newspaper
      or into a disposable container.
      Deposit it in a trash can.

Note:

This exercise most closely supports the following 1998 California English-Language Arts content standard(s).
Reading:
Grade 5--"Understand how text features (e.g., format, graphics, sequence...) make information accessible and usable" (p. 28).
Grade 9/10--"Analyze the structure and format of functional workplace documents, including graphics..." (p. 56).
Writing:
Grade 11--"Enhance meaning by employing rhetorical devices, including...the incorporation of visual aids" (p. 69).

Exercise 9: How to make an irregular joint

Case:

Student version:

(9) How to join two sheets of heavy paper or cardboard
along an irregular curve.

1. Paste down (or rubber cement)
   the first sheet on a board (Fig. 1).----PROBLEM:
                                           SOLUTION:



2. Paste the second sheet partly
   over the first and mark the
   irregular curve on it (Fig. 2).---------PROBLEM:
   Carefully cut along the joint           SOLUTION:
   through both sheets, removing
   the extra pieces of paper that
   result.



3. Reset the sheets along the cut
   (Fig. 3) and you should have a----------PROBLEM:
   perfect joint.                          SOLUTION:

Annotated version:

(9) How to join two sheets of heavy paper or cardboard
along an irregular curve.

1. Paste down (or rubber cement)
   the first sheet on a board (Fig. 1).----PROBLEM: USELESS DIAGRAM,
                                                    like irrelevant text
                                           SOLUTION: omit

2. Paste the second sheet partly
   over the first and mark the
   irregular curve on it (Fig. 2).---------PROBLEM: COMPLEX STEP
   Carefully cut along the joint...        SOLUTION: subdivide by action,
                                                     add substep diagrams--
      (a) Paste two sheets partly overlapping (Fig. A).


      (b) Draw curve on top sheet (to fit the
          overlap, Fig. B).

      (c) Cut along the curve through both
          sheets (Fig. C).


      (d) Remove extra pieces from above,
          below (Fig. D).



3. Reset the sheets along the cut
   (Fig. 3) and you should have a----------PROBLEM: NEEDED DETAIL MISSING
   perfect joint.                          SOLUTION: add step (d) above
                                                     before this one

Note:

This exercise most closely supports the following 1998 California English-Language Arts content standard(s).
Reading:
Grade 5--"Understand how text features (e.g., format, graphics, sequence...) make information accessible and usable" (p. 28).
Grade 9/10--"Analyze the structure and format of functional workplace documents, including graphics..." (p. 56).
Writing:
Grade 11--"Enhance meaning by employing rhetorical devices, including...the incorporation of visual aids" (p. 69).

Exercise 10: How to make an oval template

Case:

Student version:

(10) How to make an oval template.

After cutting an oval hole in a sheet------PROBLEM:
    of cardboard, sand its edges with      SOLUTION:
    a small piece of sandpaper (Fig. 1).


          |
          ---------------------------------PROBLEM:
                                           SOLUTION:

Smooth the curve but don't overdo it-------PROBLEM:
    or you may distort the shape           SOLUTION:
    (Fig. 2).



Spray both sides with varnish to
    protect the template.

Place small strips of cardboard or
    tape around the bottom side of
    the oval so that ink will not
    blot when you draw (Fig. 3).



If you use a technical pen, be sure--------PROBLEM:
    to hold it vertically against          SOLUTION:
    the edge of the oval (Fig. 4).

Annotated version:

(10) How to make an oval template.

After cutting an oval hole in a sheet------PROBLEM: COMPLEX STEP
    of cardboard, sand its edges...        SOLUTION: subdivide, add
                                                     details with diagrams


          |
          ---------------------------------PROBLEM: USELESS DIAGRAM,
                                                    LIKE IRRELEVANT TEXT
                                           SOLUTION: omit it
     (a) Draw an oval on one side of a sheet
         of stiff cardboard (Fig. A).


     (b) Cut carefully around the drawn curve
         to make an oval hole (Fig. B).



Smooth the curve but don't overdo it-------PROBLEM: WARNING NEEDED
    or you may distort the shape...        SOLUTION: signal clearly

     WARNING: work gently so you smooth the
     curve without distoring it (Fig. C).



Spray both sides with varnish to
    protect the template.

Place small strips of cardboard or
    tape around the bottom side of
    the oval so that ink will not
    blot when you draw (Fig. D).



If you use a technical pen, be sure--------PROBLEM: WARNING NEEDED
    to hold it vertically against...       SOLUTION: signal clearly

     WARNING: always hold your technical pen
     vertically against the edge of the
     oval (Fig. E).

Note:

This exercise most closely supports the following 1998 California English-Language Arts content standard(s).
Reading:
Grade 5--"Understand how text features (e.g., format, graphics, sequence...) make information accessible and usable" (p. 28).
Grade 9/10--"Analyze the structure and format of functional workplace documents, including graphics..." (p. 56).
Writing:
Grade 8--"Write technical documents...identifying the activities needed to operate a tool...use formatting techniques [and graphics] to aid comprehension" (p. 51).
Grade 11--"Enhance meaning by employing rhetorical devices, including...the incorporation of visual aids" (p. 69).

Exercise 11: How to clean mildew

Goal:

To improve explicit draft instructions by using any relevant aspect of the guidelines, including risk (warning) management. This noncooking exercise reviews and reinforces the same basic instruction-writing techniques as introduced in the cooking recipes of Exercises 1 through 7.

Strategy:

Exercise 11 poses much the same problems as Exercise 6 (the instructions look good superficially but turn out to have inadequacies upon closer inspection of the seemingly overt steps). Hence the strategy comments on Exercise 6 also apply here (read over all steps, note that fixing some obvious problems, such as missing action verbs, reveals secondary problems to fix, such as multiple steps crammed together as one). Exercise 11 shows students that what they have learned about writing good instructions from the cooking recipes examined in Exercises 1 through 7 applies directly to noncooking instructions too (such as this set of cleaning instructions). Warning placement (introduced in Exercise 3) is reviewed here as well. Exercises 6 and 11 could serve as alternative or comparative small-group assignments or homework.
STUDENT VERSION:
This is another scaffolded but unworked example.
ANNOTATED VERSION:
As with Exercises 6 and 7, this shows full problem analysis and overt proposed solutions added among the scaffolding along the right side (for easy comparison with each original step).

Case:

Student version:

(11) How to clean mildew (mold) from household surfaces


Combine
    in a plastic bucket or pail
    of any color or shape----------------PROBLEM:
    the ingredients for a                SOLUTION:
    mold-killing solution:
    warm water---------------------------PROBLEM:
    liquid chlorine bleach               SOLUTION:
    powdered laundry detergent

Fill
    a plastic spray bottle
    with the cleaning solution
    and then spray it onto---------------PROBLEM:
    the moldy surface.                   SOLUTION:
    When the black mildew
    turns white, it is dead.

The best thing
    to do next is to rinse---------------PROBLEM:
    the sprayed area with                SOLUTION:
    fresh water and towel
    dry or ventilate thoroughly.

Take precautions:------------------------PROBLEM:
    (a) wear rubber gloves               SOLUTION:
        when you work with
        the solution.
    (b) test it on an obscure
        area before you spray
        a large, painted surface.

Annotated version:

(11) How to clean mildew (mold) from household surfaces


Combine
    in a plastic bucket or pail
    of any color or shape----------------PROBLEM: IRRELEVANT DETAILS
    the ingredients for a                SOLUTION: omit them, shorten
    mold-killing solution:
    warm water---------------------------PROBLEM: NEEDED DETAILS MISSING
    liquid chlorine bleach               SOLUTION: specify how much--
    powdered laundry detergent                     3 quarts water
                                                   1 quart bleach
                                                   1/3 cup detergent

Fill
    a plastic spray bottle
    with the cleaning solution
    and then spray it onto---------------PROBLEM: TWO STEPS COMBINED
    the moldy surface.                   SOLUTION: separate--
    When the black mildew                          Fill the bottle...
    turns white, it is dead.                       Spray the surface...

The best thing
    to do next is to rinse---------------PROBLEM: NO OVERT COMMAND(s)
    the sprayed area with                SOLUTION: action verbs--
    fresh water and towel                          Rinse...
    dry or ventilate thoroughly.                   Towel dry...

Take precautions:------------------------PROBLEM: WARNINGS BEFORE USE
    (a) wear rubber gloves               SOLUTION: make these the FIRST
        when you work with                         steps, not last
        the solution.
    (b) test it on an obscure
        area before you spray
        a large, painted surface.

Note:

This exercise most closely supports the following 1998 California English-Language Arts content standard(s).
Reading:
Grade 7--"Analyze text that uses the cause-and-effect organizational pattern" (p. 42).
Grade 9/10--"Critique the logic of functional documents by examining the sequence of information...in anticipation of possible reader misunderstandings" (p. 57).
Writing:
Grade 7--"Revise writing to improve organization and word choice after checking the logic of ideas..." (p. 44).
Grade 8--"Write technical documents...identify the sequence of activities needed to design a system, operate a tool..." (p. 51).

Exercise 12: How to store and retrieve files

Goal:

To practice using almost all of the instruction-writing guidelines on one set of (rather abstract) draft instructions.

Strategy:

Exercise 12 is much like Exercises 6 and 7 in its demands, but the noncooking topic here is software documentation rather than cleaning instructions (as in Exercise 11). Students who handled the previous exercises well will find that Exercise 12 reveals how directly their editing skills transfer to writing software instructions, a vast and profitable industrial role. Students who struggled to master the previous exercises, however, may find the relative abstractness of Exercise 12 and its multiple intertwined problems confusing or frustrating. Hence this exercise makes a nice challenge for students comfortable with using the instruction-writing guidelines, but it is probably best skipped or handled as a teacher-mediated case by students still unconfident of their instruction editing skills. (The file-storage program used here strictly as an example is actually a customized UNIX software tool developed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.)
STUDENT VERSION:
This is another scaffolded but unworked example.
ANNOTATED VERSION:
As with Exercises 6 and 7, this shows full problem analysis and overt proposed solutions added among the scaffolding along the right side (for easy comparison with each original step). You might well need to spell out the entire worked sequence overtly to overcome the extra burden of the more abstract topic here.

Case:

Student version:

(12) How to store and retrieve files

1. If you have a binary file,
   be sure to request BINARY mode
   after you start.----------------------PROBLEM:
                                         SOLUTION:

2. You can begin by running--------------PROBLEM:
   NFT, a program that                   SOLUTION:
   automatically opens a
   connection to storage.

3. The PUT command is one of
   over a dozen that NFT offers.---------PROBLEM:
   Store a file by typing                SOLUTION:
      put filename

4. Retrieve a stored file
   by typing
      get filename
   unless you already have a-------------PROBLEM:
   file by that name, in which           SOLUTION:
   case NFT will print the message
   "cannot clobber existing file."
   Then you have a choice of-------------PROBLEM:
   typing                                SOLUTION:
      clobber
   to allow overwriting or
      get filename newname
   to change the name of the
   retrieved file as it arrives.

5. End NFT
   by typing  quit

Annotated version:

(12) How to store and retrieve files

1. If you have a binary file,
   be sure to request BINARY mode
   after you start.----------------------PROBLEM: WRONG ORDER
                                         SOLUTION: move after step 2

2. You can begin by running--------------PROBLEM: NO OVERT COMMAND
   NFT, a program that                   SOLUTION: Run NFT, a program...
   automatically opens a
   connection to storage.

3. The PUT command is one of
   over a dozen that NFT offers.---------PROBLEM: IRRELEVANT TEXT
   Store a file by typing                SOLUTION: delete extra words--
      put filename                                 Store a file...

4. Retrieve a stored file
   by typing
      get filename
   unless you already have a-------------PROBLEM: TROUBLESHOOTING TIP
   file by that name, in which           SOLUTION: add a warning
   case NFT will print the message       (see next problem)
   "cannot clobber existing file."
   Then you have a choice of-------------PROBLEM: COMPLEX STEP
   typing                                SOLUTION: subdivide in warning--
      clobber                                      WARNING--NFT automatically
   to allow overwriting or                         prevents you from
      get filename newname                         writing over a file
   to change the name of the                       of the same name.
   retrieved file as it arrives.                   Either
                                                     (a) authorize the over-
5. End NFT                                               write by typing
   by typing  quit                                         clobber     or
                                                     (b) change the retrieved
                                                         file's name by
                                                         typing
                                                           get filename newname

Note:

This exercise most closely supports the following 1998 California English-Language Arts content standard(s).
Reading:
Grade 7--"Analyze text that uses the cause-and-effect organizational pattern" (p. 42).
Grade 9/10--"Critique the logic of functional documents by examining the sequence of information...in anticipation of possible reader misunderstandings" (p. 57).
Writing:
Grade 7--"Revise writing to improve organization and word choice after checking the logic of ideas..." (p. 44).
Grade 8--"Write technical documents...identify the sequence of activities needed to design a system, operate a tool..." (p. 51).

Exercise 13: Removing wax from carpet

Goal:

To detect and solve usability problems in a long set of instructions. This exercise shows students that the guidelines are scalable, that the same instruction-improving techniques that work on recipe-sized projects work just as well on much longer sets of instructions.

Strategy:

The wax-removing instructions introduce no new issues in instruction editing. But they are:

• about twice as long as any previous exercise (with 14 internal problems instead of the usual 5 to 7), and
• not scaffolded at all. This is the first exercise with no added cues about where to look for places to improve. Students must detect each problem by studying the text itself, then develop solutions.

I have divided these instructions by sentence solely for easier analysis and discussion. The wide right margin leaves space for student annotations.
APPROACHES:
I suggest that students work this exercise in stages:

• First, diagnose the latent problems and make them overt. Add a note along the wide right margin to identify the location and kind of each problem, a way of self-scaffolding the text to prepare for revising it. The first annotated version below shows my list of problems made overt in this way.
• Second, rewrite each weak step and move it if needed to gradually apply the instruction-writing guidelines here. The second annotated version below shows one improved alternative set of instructions that addresses every problem noted previously.
• Several iterations may be needed for students to fix everything and properly place all the steps and warnings. Such iterative refinement is a good technical writing strategy, very practical and often used in real life. Editing long draft instructions like these is not a contest to "guess the right answer" quickly. Rather it is a project to develop an increasingly better set of steps to help the reader, using as many passes through the text as it takes to fix every problem you can find.

COMPARATIVE WORD COUNT:
As with Exercises 4 and 5 earlier, I suggest that after students thoroughly revise Exercise 13 they compare the number of words in the (flawed) original with the number of words in their own (improved) version. If numbers count as words, there are 242 words in the original carpet-wax instructions, 173 words (omitting the step numbers) in the edited version (71% of the original), and 186 words if you include the step numbers (77% of the original). So, as before with short instructions, this long set shows again that improving the effectiveness of instructions usually also reduces the number of words needed (here, the improved version is 25-30% shorter than the flawed original).
STUDENT VERSION:
Although the sentences are separated for easier discussion and editing, these are raw draft instructions with no scaffolding.
ANNOTATED VERSIONS:
The first annotated version itemizes the problems but does not solve them. The second annotated version shows one appropriate way to solve all the problems noted in the first pass.

Case:

Student version:

Removing Wax from Carpet

You can start by trying to scrape out
as much wax as possible with a dull
knife (such as a butter knife or a
putty knife).

But before you scrape, it is best to
chill the spilled wax with an ice bag
(or a bag of frozen vegetables).

The next step is to cover the remaining
wax residue with 2 or 3 paper towels.

Set an electric iron to its lowest
temperature.

Then it is possible to take the warm iron
and move it over the paper towels that
cover the wax, to absorb some melted wax
with each pass.

When they become saturated with wax,
change the paper towels and then repeat
until the paper towels absorb no more wax.

Scrub the waxed carpet area with a rag
dampened in mineral spirits.

Then scrub the carpet area again with
mild detergent after you dry it with
more paper towels.

Rinsing with clean water will be
necessary too.

And you will also have to dry the carpet
with a hair dryer or fan, fluffing
the carpet as needed.

One possible problem during this whole
cleaning process is that different carpet
fibers melt at different temperatures.
An inconspicuous place should be tested
by moving the warm iron over paper towels
to make sure that the carpet will not melt.

A second possible problem is that you
might put too much mineral spirits on the
rag.  Do not soak the rag; just moisten it.

Annotated version (1):

Removing Wax from Carpet [WITH PROBLEMS NOTED]
                                                 --NO LIST FORMAT
You can start by trying to scrape out
as much wax as possible with a dull              --NO OVERT COMMAND
knife (such as a butter knife or a
putty knife).

But before you scrape, it is best to             --WRONG ORDER
chill the spilled wax with an ice bag
(or a bag of frozen vegetables).

The next step is to cover the remaining          --IRRELEVANT TEXT
wax residue with 2 or 3 paper towels.            --NO OVERT COMMAND

Set an electric iron to its lowest
temperature.

Then it is possible to take the warm iron        --IRRELEVANT TEXT
and move it over the paper towels that           --NO OVERT COMMAND
cover the wax, to absorb some melted wax
with each pass.

When they become saturated with wax,             --COMPLEX STEP
change the paper towels and then repeat
until the paper towels absorb no more wax.

Scrub the waxed carpet area with a rag
dampened in mineral spirits.                     --HIDDEN STEP

Then scrub the carpet area again with
mild detergent after you dry it with             --WRONG ORDER
more paper towels.

Rinsing with clean water will be                 --NO OVERT COMMAND
necessary too.

And you will also have to dry the carpet         --IRRELEVANT TEXT
with a hair dryer or fan, fluffing               --NO OVERT COMMAND
the carpet as needed.

One possible problem during this whole           --MISPLACED WARNINGS
cleaning process is that different carpet
fibers melt at different temperatures.
An inconspicuous place should be tested
by moving the warm iron over paper towels
to make sure that the carpet will not melt.

A second possible problem is that you
might put too much mineral spirits on the
rag.  Do not soak the rag; just moisten it.

Annotated version (2):

Removing Wax from Carpet [AN IMPROVED VERSION]

1. Chill
     the spilled wax with an ice bag
     (or a bag of frozen vegetables).

2. Scrape
     out as much wax as possible with a dull knife
     (such as a butter or putty knife).

3. Cover
     the remaining wax residue with 2 or 3 paper towels.

4. Set
     an electric iron to its lowest temperature.
     WARNING: carpet fibers melt at different
     temperatures.  Test the iron setting by moving
     the warm iron over paper towels in an
     inconspicuous place to make sure that the carpet
     will not melt.

5. Move
     the warm iron over the paper towels that cover the wax,
     to absorb some melted wax with each pass.

6. Change
     the paper towels when they become saturated
     with wax.

7. Repeat
     steps 5 and 6 until the paper towels absorb no more wax.

8. Dampen
     a rag with mineral spirits.
     WARNING: do not soak the rag; just moisten it.

9. Scrub
     the waxed carpet area vigorously.

10. Dry
     with more paper towels.

11. Scrub
     again with mild detergent.

12. Rinse
     with clean water.

13. Dry
     with a hair dryer or fan, fluffing the carpet as needed.

Note:

This exercise most closely supports the following 1998 California English-Language Arts content standard(s).
Reading:
Grade 5--"Understand how text features...make information accessible and usable" (p. 28).
Grade 9/10--"Analyze the structure and format of functional workplace documents...and explain how authors use the features to achieve their purposes" (p. 56).
Grade 9/10--"Critique the logic of functional documents by examining the sequence of information...in anticipation of possible reader misunderstandings" (p. 57).
Writing:
Grade 6--"Create multiple-paragraph expository compositions...[using] a variety of effective and coherent organizational patterns" (p. 37).
Grade 8--"Write technical documents...identify the sequence of activities needed to design a system, operate a tool..." (p. 51).

Exercise 14: How to draw a spiral

Case:

Student version:

(14) How to draw a spiral.

Fig. 1





Fig. 2





Fig. 3

Annotated version:
There is no single correct answer for this exercise. Here is one plausible set of instruction steps that you can compare with student results. (Note that in the "test kit" I always precut the slit in the bottle cap purely to avoid knife accidents in class.)

(14) How to draw a spiral.

1. Cut a short vertical slit in the edge of the
   plastic bottle cap (Fig. 1, left).


2. Tie a knot in one end of the thread to make a
   loop, following the pattern shown in
   Fig. 1, right.

3. Insert the sharpened end of the pencil into
   the loop of thread (Fig. 1, right).

4. Insert the other end of the thread into the
   slit in the bottle cap (by pulling it
   through the cut in the rim, Fig. 1, left).

5. Place the bottle cap (with thread and
   pencil attached) on the sheet of paper
   where you want the center of the spiral
   (Fig. 2).


6. Wind the thread around the rim of the bottle
   cap, as in Fig. 2, until the loop and pencil
   touch the rim.

7. Draw the spiral (Fig. 3):
   (a) Hold the bottle cap with one hand.
   (b) Unwind the thread slowly, using the
       pencil tip in your other hand to
       trace the spiral.


8. Remove the bottle cap and pencil.

Note:

This exercise most closely supports the following 1998 California English-Language Arts content standard(s).
Reading:
Grade 5--"Understand how text features (e.g., format, graphics, sequence...) make information accessible and usable" (p. 28).
Grade 9/10--"Analyze the structure and format of functional workplace documents, including graphics..." (p. 56).
Writing:
Grade 8--"Write technical documents...identifying the activities needed to operate a tool...use formatting techniques [and graphics] to aid comprehension" (p. 51).
Grade 11--"Enhance meaning by employing rhetorical devices, including...the incorporation of visual aids" (p. 69).

Exercise 15: Fact Checking on the Internet

SCHLOSSER'S CLAIMS:
In Fast Food Nation, Eric Schlosser makes many wide-ranging empirical claims, including claims about

• biology (E. coli contamination in meat), and
• economics (across-decade spending comparisons).
   
  

I picked two such claims that could be confirmed or disconfirmed using reliable yet free sources on the Internet, then prepared "good" and "bad" instructions for checking those claims. Students use Hoey's matrix approach to practice taking instruction-revealing notes while I model the "good" fact-checking steps. Then they use those notes to find and improve flaws in the "bad" instructions, worked as a group exercise.

A HELPFUL WEBSITE:
The California State Library maintains a useful public-service World Wide Web "portal" (site with organized links to many other sites) to help students become acquainted with reputable online reference sources. Called Librarians' Internet Index (LII at URL lii.org), it offers a searchable, hierarchical, encyclopedia-like set of alphabetized topics (good for checking specific claims in biology or economics, for example). While the primary point of this exercise is to draft, evaluate, and improve fairly long instructions (which happen to be instructions for searching the Internet), a secondary point is to introduce students to this reliable, practical information portal.

HOW TO USE THIS EXERCISE:

(A) Note Taking.
The basic plan here is to practice in advance the sequence of actions needed to check two of Schlosser's claims by using LII-linked Internet resources, model that search for students during class, and have them capture what they see in structured notes that they could edit into useful instructions for others.

• Identify
  the claims that you want to verify online. I used Schlosser's claims that
  (1) "E. coli O157:H7 was most likely responsible for some human illnesses thirty or forty years ago. But the rise of huge feedlots, slaughterhouses, and hamburger grinders seems to have provided the means for this pathogen to become widely dispersed in the nation's food supply." (p. 196)
  (2) "In 1970, Americans spent about $6 billion on fast food; in 2001, they spent more that $110 billion." (p. 3)
• Practice
  using LII to track down reputable websites that address your target claims. LII and the sites to which it links vary somewhat over time, so the exact details shown here may need adjustment to reflect the current configuration.
• Capture
  your steps in instructions that you can then use
  (1) as a guide, to reproduce smoothly and reliably during class, and
  (2) as a rubric, to evaluate student responses to the intentionally flawed instructions for this search that you later distribute (below).
  For example, here are my instructions (as of 2007) for checking the two specific claims mentioned above:

  
  [Use LII to check facts in biology/economics]
  
  Start your browser.
  Request lii.org.
       Type lii.org into the browser's Address field.
       Press ENTER (or RETURN).
            The top level LII topics and a few subtopics for each
            appear on the LII home page.
       Scroll down to see those that do not fit in your browser window.
  
  E. coli O157:H7
  
  Find the Health heading on the LII home page (topics are alphabetical).
  Select (click on) Diseases and Conditions under Health.
       More subtopics appear (under Health) in the left-hand column.
  Select Infectious Diseases from the list of new subtopics.
       Additional disease subtopics appear, plus "more subtopics" head.
  Select More Subtopics.
       Fifty specific diseases appear in the left-hand column.
  Select Foodborne Diseases from the alphabetical list
       Twenty-five one-paragraph website descriptions appear
       (right-hand column), each with a descriptive title.
  Select the fifth website, called
       CDC: Escherichia coli O157:H7 (click on its title).
       The CDC FAQ website appears, offers branches.
  
  Inflation rate
  
  Use the LII search engine (since location among topics is
       not obvious).
  Type    inflation rate   into the LII "Search entire collection for"
       field just under the home-page banner.
       WARNING: do NOT surround search term with quotes,
       even though it is two words, because LII always returns
       zero hits for quoted terms.
  Select the third reported website--"How much is that?"
  Select the first choice on its home page--"Five ways to compare
       the worth of a United States dollar"
  Type the target year, original year, and dollar amount into
       the conversion form fields.
  Click on the Submit Query button.
  
  

• Introduce
  Michael Hoey's matrix approach to taking notes on a process (or, as Hoey says in Textual Interaction, on a "happening"). I give each student a blank sheet of grid-ruled paper on which these column (top) and section (left) headings appear:

  
                    ACTION      ITEM
  
     Get Started
  
     Check E. coli
  
     Check inflation
  
  

  Under the "ACTION" column go the verbs for each step observed (e.g., "find"), while under the "ITEM" column goes the object (e.g., "the health heading...") of that action. The stub heads along the left side organize the notes into phases (sequences of topical clusters). With this framework, note taking becomes a structured, scaffolded way to notice and spell out the actions and focal items for each step in a complex process. This build-a-matrix technique lets students actively practice a crucial enabling skill, not just hear about it. And it captures relevant information needed to create good instructions for others.
• Demonstrate
  the use of LII to check claims by walking through your practiced search as students watch (large-screen projection of the interactive browser session, or use of large monitors, is the most dramatic way to do this, but a series of big, posted screen shots can also work well in classrooms with no Internet access). You can offer running commentary on the search process as well as on your own version of the note-taking matrix (I use a flip chart so that I can move it and point to it later) that you fill in with student help as you go along. This models both the fact-check search and taking notes on it at a pace that you can control to suit class needs.
• Review
  what has happened so far, in light of the good-instruction guidelines.
  (1) Students with adequate skills can go forward to edit their notes into formal instructions to share (perhaps working in small groups, or as homework).
  (2) Less prepared students can now use their notes (or if really inadequate, your public set) to find the flaws in an already drafted set of instructions for this LII search (next item below).

(B) Flaw Detection.
Even though this draft is two to three times larger than most of the previous exercises, students will find that their past practice in detecting flaws in instructions applies directly to this bigger task. The instruction-writing guidelines "scale up" easily to handle this long case, if students patiently work through it piecewise, just as real editors would on a real job. Their own "matrix of notes" (built above) helps here too, another authentic aspect of this bigger case. I invite students to find as many ways to improve this draft as they can. A side benefit is that while they use the line numbers (left edge) to tell specifically where they think improvements are needed, students gain experience with the edge-numbered format for focal text that appears often on the Language Arts portion of the California High School Exit Examination (CAHSEE).

(C) Fact-Checking Applied.
After the class has improved these instructions, I apply them by revealing the actual fact-checking results for the two Schlosser claims that started the search. I always include (at least) one claim that online research disconfirms (in this case, Schlosser ignored inflation in his cross-decade dollar comparisons).

Case:

Fact-checking Instructions, Draft Version to Improve

  1 You can check facts on the Internet by using a web browser.

  2 The Librarians' Internet Index (LII) is a reliable place

  3 to check facts in specific subject areas

  4 (such as biology and economics).

  5 LII is organized in layers by topic,

  6 from general to more and more specific.

  7 Starting the web browser (such as Internet Explorer)

  8 on your computer is the first step.

  9 

 10 Requesting the LII website requires typing lii.org into the

 11 Address or Location field near the top of the browser window.

 12 Then you can select (click on) the topic or subtopic on which

 13 you want more information from the list on LII's home page.

 14 Don't forget to press ENTER (or RETURN) after you type lii.org.

 15 If your browser window is short, you must scroll down

 16 to see the full list of topics covered.

 17 

 18 The alphabetical list of topics on the LII home page contains

 19 a heading called Health.

 20 Select (click on) the Diseases and Conditions subheading

 21 under Health and when additional subtopics appear in the

 22 left-hand column,

 23 select Infectious Diseases from the new subtopics.

 24 Select Foodborne Diseases from the list of

 25 fifty diseases that appears in response to your

 26 picking More subtopics from the short list of subheads

 27 under the Infectious Diseases topic revealed above.

 28 This could be very relevant information.

 29 Under Foodborne Diseases are one-paragraph

 30 descriptions of 12 websites covering different pathogens.

 31 The fifth one is called

 32      CDC: Escherichia coli O157:H7

 33 and you can click on its title to retrieve biological

 34 and medical details on E. coli.

 35 

 36 Use the LII search engine instead of the topic headings

 37 to find inflation-rate information, since its place

 38 among the topics is not obvious.

 39 If you wish you can type the term inflation rate

 40 into the field marked "Search entire collection for"

 41 found just under the banner on the LII home page.

 42 It is strongly suggested that you do not surround

 43 your search term with quotation marks, because the

 44 LII search engine always returns zero hits for

 45 quoted terms.

 46 Select the proper website from the list of three returned.

 47 Select the first choice there, called "Five ways to

 48 compare the worth of a United States dollar."

 49 Click in the Submit Query button, but

 50 before that type the target year, original year,

 51 and amount into the conversion form.

Note:

This exercise most closely supports the following 1998 California English-Language Arts content standard(s).
Reading:
Grade 3--"Read aloud fluently."
Grade 9/10--"Critique the logic of functional documents...in anticipation of reader misunderstandings" (p. 57).
Grade 11/12--"Analyze both the features and the rhetorical devices of...public documents" (p. 66).
Writing:
Grade 7--"Revise writing to improve organization and word choice after checking the logic of the ideas and the precision of the vocabulary" (p. 44).
Grade 8--"Establish coherence within and among paragraphs" (p. 51).
Grade 9/10--"Write technical documents...report information and convey ideas logically and correctly...anticipate reader problems" (p. 61).